The chapter "Building materials, construction equipment, structures" of the subsection "Architecture of the Roman Republic" of the section "Architecture of Ancient Rome" from the book "General History of Architecture. Volume II Architecture of the Ancient World (Greece and Rome) ”edited by B.P. Mikhailova.
Stone was the main building material in a mountainous country rich in its various varieties and volcanic rocks. The most convenient for processing were varieties of soft tuff - gray, yellowish or brownish in color. Hard limestone - travertine, which was used extremely sparingly for almost the entire period of the republic, was very much appreciated. It was used by architects only in places of the greatest load of the building in the corner parts and in those parts where porous tuff was not practical, easily exposed to weathering. Outside, stone buildings were often covered with a light layer of knocking. Mostly religious and public buildings and engineering structures were erected from stone. Dwellings were built from raw brick. Since the end of the 2nd century burnt bricks of various shapes came into use. From the shaped round or pentagonal brick, the trunks of the columns were laid out (Fig. 1). By the end of the 1st century BC. Hollow brick blocks were used in the walls of the term to construct a heating system in which hot air circulated (Fig. 2).
At the end of the republic’s period, white marble, both local and imported from Greece, began to be used to decorate temples, public buildings and rich dwellings.
In the building art and stone processing techniques, the Etruscans had a known influence on the Romans. The remains of the oldest Roman buildings are made of large stones of irregular shape. In addition to polygonal, quadratic masonry was also mastered early. For the period V-III centuries. BC e. the Romans improved construction equipment by developing the so-called "normal" masonry of blocks in the form of a parallelepiped of different sizes (average 60X60X120 cm). Several methods of this masonry were used: from only spoon rows of blocks; from spoons with rare pokes; from alternating rows of spoons and pokes, as well as observing the rhythmic alternation in each row of pins and spoons (Fig. 3).
To the III century. BC. Under the influence of the Greeks, the processing of the outside of the blocks improved and various rusting methods were developed. The simplest cranes were used to lift and move heavy stone blocks at construction sites (Fig. 4).
In addition to the post-beam system, the constructions used a false arch and a false arch. By the end of the III century. BC. refers to the appearance of Roman concrete, which opened up great opportunities in construction.
The development of Roman concrete began with the use of mortar in rubble masonry. A similar construction technique in Hellenistic times was widespread. The difference between Roman concrete and conventional lime mortars is that instead of sand it used pozzolans - volcanic sands named after the place of extraction (the city of Pozzuoli - ancient Puteoli). The use of pozzolan instead of sand in mortar was caused by the lack of good grades of sand in this part of Italy. The pozzolans proved to be the best astringent in solution, as they gave it water resistance, strength and contributed to its quick setting. Initially, concrete was used only to fill the space between the walls of ashlar. The dimensions of the stones laid in the concrete gradually decreased, the mixture became more and more homogeneous, and concrete thus turned into an independent building material, although the lining of the outer surfaces with the stone was preserved. Initially, the wall surface consisted of small irregular-shaped stones connected to the core of the wall and to each other with concrete mortar. This is the so-called improper facing - incert (opus incertum). Gradually (from the 90s of the 1st century BC) a tendency appeared to give the stones an increasingly regular shape and, finally, from the middle of the 1st century. BC. the reticulum is used - meshwork (opus reticulatum), in which the outer surface of the concrete wall is faced with small, carefully laid pyramidal stones. Their flat bases go out and form a mesh pattern, and the pointed ends are immersed in the concrete core of the wall (Fig. 5). The corners of the walls and lintels of the openings were formed by masonry from large blocks. Samples of early concrete equipment came to us in a small number. This is due to the fact that initially concrete was used mainly not in monumental buildings, but in dwellings and small structures, for which a quickly obtained and inexpensive wall material was needed. The concrete technique also had the advantage that it required a much smaller number of skilled construction workers and allowed the widespread use of slave labor.
At the same time, the development of arched vaulted structures, which were still used in the architecture of the ancient East, was sometimes met in Greece (Priena, Pergamum and others). The question of whether arched vaulted structures are introduced into the architecture of Rome from the outside or independently invented by Roman architects cannot be considered finally settled at present.
The first appearance of the blade-shaped arch in Rome dates back to the 4th century. BC. In the III-II centuries. BC. the number of arch-vaulted structures is increasing, it is especially increasing since the end of the II century. BC.
The combination of concrete equipment and arch-vault structures, which gave unprecedented opportunities, had a huge impact on the development of Roman architecture. Only with the help of such construction equipment could it be possible to create such outstanding architectural structures as the Roman aqueducts, the Colosseum and the Pantheon.
The first of the monumental structures that has come down to us in this new form of technology is the portico Emiliev, which was a huge grain warehouse in Emporia (the port of Rome downstream of the Tiber). Large trade operations were carried out here. Emporius was originally a simple unloading area, while the portico of Emiliev was a temporary structure. In 174 BC a portico building was built (Fig. 6). It was a large rectangular building, stretched along the embankment (487X60 m), divided inside into 50 short transverse naves by 49 rows of pillars. The building rose in steps from the banks of the Tiber, and each nave was blocked by a stepped cylindrical vault with a span of 8.3 m. On the facade of hewn tuff, each nave corresponded to a section separated from neighboring pilasters. Each nave is expressed on the facade: at the bottom with a large arched span, at the top with two smaller windows also with a semicircular completion. The walls of the building are made of gray concrete of very good quality, their surface is lined with incert; the corners of the building and wedge-shaped arches above the door and window openings are made of rectangular blocks of the same material. Portico Emiliev was an outstanding monument of early Roman building art.
Here, for the first time in a building of such a grandiose scale, the fusion of the vaulted-arch principle of structures with concrete technology was achieved. Such a developed construction indicates, probably, a long preceding evolution.
The purpose of the building was answered by the simplicity of its forms. The repetition on the facade of one standard element 50 times gave the building scale and emphasized the utilitarian nature of its purpose.
Such huge structures were carried out in an extremely short time. The grand Coliseum was built in five years, and aqueducts with a length of 100 or more kilometers along with substructures and bridges “at the places where they crossed the river valleys, the Romans managed to erect in two or three years (the term of office of the edil - the construction manager, elected by the Senate). Construction was usually surrendered and carried out by contractors who were interested in the best organization of the whole, skillfully combining the work of a huge mass of unskilled slaves and a small number of experienced construction architects. Therefore, when designing, they widely used typing of the main structural elements, the multiplicity of their foot sizes and modularity, which made it possible to divide the work into the same simple operations. The organization of labor at Roman construction sites was very high.
The Roman Empire is one of the oldest civilizations in the world. Its history begins more than three thousand years ago, and its heyday falls on the first centuries of our era. The collapse of the ancient Roman civilization is associated with the raids of the barbarians, which also marked the beginning and the destruction of an immense number of architectural structures of that time. Only a part of them has survived to our days, but this is enough to enjoy the grandeur and beauty of ancient cultural objects.
The tenth place among the most popular architectural attractions of Rome can be safely given to this unique building. The reason for the construction of the Arc de Triomphe in 81 AD was the capture of Jerusalem by the emperor Titus a decade earlier.
The arch has one span and is located on the Sacred Road Via Sacra. A distinctive feature of the building is an amazing bas-relief inside the arch, which depicts a procession of warriors demonstrating their trophies obtained in Jerusalem.
The arch almost completely retained its original appearance, except for the absence at the top of the monument of the statue of Titus himself, fused from bronze.
Due to its unique structure, this monument rises among others to the 9th line of the rating. The column is dedicated to Emperor Trajan, a native of ordinary legionaries, who strengthened and strengthened the power of the Roman Empire during his reign.
The monument was erected in 113 AD. Inside it is a spiral staircase leading to the observation deck of the capital, and on the outside the column is decorated with relief episodes of the battles of the times of the war of Dacia and Rome.
The base of the monument, inside which the urns with ashes are located, is the tomb of Emperor Trajan, who died in 117 AD, and his life partner.
Trevi Fountain
In Rome, a large number of beautiful fountains have been preserved, among which the Trevi Fountain is the most popular, for which he received eighth place in the list of attractions.
This building has an amazing history. Back in the 20 years of our era, the emperor Octavian Augustus installed a clean water supply for residents, powered by a source 12 km away from the city. Until the 18th century, the building was modest in appearance, and only in 1762, after a thirty-year period of construction, it acquired its unique look.
The fountain is a stone statue of the sea god Neptune, surrounded by many characters that amaze with the accuracy of details, and facial expressions.
The Baths of Caracalla
Seventh place goes to the so-called "bath complexes" of Rome. They were created under Marcus Aurelius, an emperor nicknamed Caracalla, in the 3rd century AD.
The building had a lot of compartments, designed not only to wash, but also to relax completely, to enjoy and relax in the soul. The buildings included baths (baths), libraries, places for theatrical performances, and gymnasiums.
The purpose of this building was to attract people, popularize the term, in connection with which the emperors sought not only to decorate the walls and floors of the building with a unique mosaic, marble, but also collected numerous sculptures and other art values \u200b\u200bin it.
Catacombs
The sixth line includes the numerous underground labyrinths of Rome, which are ancient burial places of people ranked as saints.
Burials lasted from the 1st to the 5th centuries AD. During this period, about 750 thousand people were buried in tombs, the number of which totals more than sixty.
Since the catacombs are located around the perimeter of the city in its different areas, there is no one concrete entrance to them. You can get into the underground labyrinths by studying the official sites of the tombs.
Mausoleum of Hadrian
Another unique structure of Ancient Rome - the castle of the Holy Angel - falls in fifth place in the rating. Throughout its history, this place has managed to be a tomb, a prison, the residence of popes and a depository of their valuables, a castle, and is now a museum and architectural monument.
The mausoleum was built in 139 AD by order of the emperor Hadrian himself, who revered art and architecture, for his own burial.
The construction is a twenty-meter-tall building, which has a cylindrical shape and is installed on a large square base. Initially, the top of the building was decorated with a statue of Hadrian, presented in the form of the god’s chariot manager Helios. A wonderful bridge leads to the castle, decorated with a large number of antique sculptures.
Saint Paul's Cathedral
Due to its status as the main cathedral of the Catholic Church, this building rises to the fourth step in the ranking of the famous architectural structures of Rome.
The construction of the cathedral lasted more than forty years and was the result of the work of many famous sculptors and architects, such as Michelangelo Buonarotti, Giacomo della Porta, Carlo Maderna.
The building has a stunning facade with a cornice crowned with sculptures of the eleven apostles (except Peter), John the Baptist and Jesus Christ. And in front of the cathedral itself are the statues of Peter, holding the key to the Kingdom of Heaven, and the Apostle Paul, solemnly holding the sword in his hand.
The height of the dome installed on the columns of the cathedral, to this day remains the highest in the world, and is equal to 138 meters.
The cathedral is striking in its scale and a huge number of departments, lined with sculptures, paintings, stucco molding. The costs of its construction were so huge that Pope Leo X was forced to sell Albrecht of Branderburg the right to carry out indulgences on German lands, due to the self-interest of which there was a European split in the future.
The three leaders are opened by the temple, built by order of the emperor Hadrian back in the 2nd century AD, and dedicated to all the Gods.
Like many other buildings of ancient Rome, the Pantheon is the tomb for the burial of many famous people (Umberto I, Raphael is buried here).
The most popular and unique feature of the building is a round hole located on the roof of the dome, through which at noon a bright wide beam of light penetrates the building.
The temple is famous for its rich interior decoration with colored marble, beautiful frescoes and magnificent decoration. And, despite the presence of thick walls and a massive dome, a feeling of lightness and integrity of all structures is created inside.
The second place in the ranking goes to the center of public life in Rome - the square, built on the site of a once marshy area used as a cemetery, and drained using sewer systems, several centuries before our era.
Such magnificent architectural structures as the Temple of Vespasian, the Temple of Saturn and the Temple of Vesta were erected at the Roman Forum.
A temple dedicated to the god Saturn, built another 5 centuries BC, underwent many changes associated with constant destruction and restoration, and has survived to our time only in the form of several columns.
About the same fate affected the Vespasian Temple, built in 79 AD, from which at present there are only three high columns that rise 15 meters above the ground.
It has survived to our time entirely, erected in honor of the goddess of the hearth, the Temple of Vesta. After numerous fires occurring in the building, it was decided to close it, in connection with which the structure fell into decay and greatly dilapidated.
This building rightfully occupies the first place in the list, since for a long time it has been not just a magnificent building, but an indisputable symbol of Ancient and modern Rome.
The amphitheater is an oval-shaped multi-storey building with many arches of different sizes located around the perimeter. The construction of this facility took 8 years. Each tier is strengthened by columns erected in different architectural styles (Corinthian, Ionic, Doric order).
The Coliseum was decorated in marble on the outside, and stunning sculptures decorated the perimeter.
The most important persons of Rome and the emperor himself were seated in the lower boxes for privileged persons.
Despite the fact that only one third of the building has survived, the Roman Colosseum remains one of the most striking architectural structures in the whole world.
This period includes the construction of a number of large engineering structures, and among them - a large port in Ostia. In 102, Trayan built a large stone bridge with concrete piers across the Danube to control Dhakia. Of course, it was not he who built it, but his master builders, among whom Apollodorus from Damascus stood out. He was probably one of the most educated and talented engineers of the Roman Empire, since in addition to the bridge he built a number of large and structurally complex structures, such as the Trajan's forum, the circus and thermae in Rome, named after the emperor. He is credited with the construction of one of the most beautiful and outstanding structures of world architecture - the concrete Pantheon in Rome.
Construction continues even more intensively during the reign of Emperor Hadrian (117-138). Adrian took part in the construction not only as an organizer, but also as an architect and civil engineer. He spent most of his life traveling around the empire. Adrian visited all the Roman provinces, was a big fan of Greek culture, admired the skill of Egyptian artists.
In his declining years, he ordered the construction of a country villa with concrete walls in the city of Tibur near Rome and a miniature reproduction of everything that so struck him during his travels. In 132 Adrian began to build for himself a grandiose mausoleum and a bridge to it, thrown across the Tiber. The construction of these structures was completed in 139. The construction activities of the closest successors to Adrian were not so lively. Of the most significant buildings can be called a temple in honor of the wife of Emperor Antoninus Pius and a column bearing the name of Marcus Aurelius.
During the reign of Septimius Severus (193-211), some revival of construction activity took place. According to his contemporary Lempidarium "... He restored the construction of former sovereigns and erected many, including the terms of his name. He spent water, which is called Alexandrova ...
He first introduced the Alexander way of finishing with two types of marble. At the forum of Trajan, he placed statues of great people, moving them from everywhere ... The bridges built by Trajan, he restored in almost all places, and in some of them he rebuilt ... "In 203, in commemoration of the victories over the Parthians and Arabs in Rome under construction on the powerful concrete foundation, the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus 23 meters high and 25 meters wide. The architecture of this period is distinguished by the richness of decorative decoration, which gives the buildings a formal appearance.
Under the Emperor Caracalla (211-217), the most grandiose and most beautiful terms in the history of the city’s existence are built in Rome, where concrete was used as the main building material. The entire complex of buildings occupied 16 hectares and was completed in just over four years.
Previously, large cash expenses caused by wars, road construction, public works, famines and plague epidemics were covered by military trophies, tribute from conquered peoples or money from the sale of captured and confiscated lands, but now, at the beginning of the 3rd century, such opportunities are abrupt are declining.
Rome at that time, like many cities in its provinces, still retained its external brilliance, however, the decline rooted in the very structure of the Roman Empire was already clearly visible. Pirates again threatened maritime trade, and land roads became unsafe due to the increasing incidence of robbery. The period of extreme collapse of the economy has come; cities were depopulated, fields were empty, because there weren’t enough workers, a deepening of typical forms of subsistence farming was observed.
In the second half of the 3rd century, after the onslaught of barbarians on the Roman borders intensified, the intensive construction of fortresses and walls throughout the vast empire began. So, Aurelian from the first days of his reign began to strengthen Rome with powerful walls, the construction of which was completed in 282.
Events and numerous decrees of Diocletian, and later Constantine, aimed at normalizing the economic life of the country, were crowned with success. The external danger to the Roman state was temporarily eliminated, the order was strengthened, and peace was ensured. One of the main methods of state policy was the “militarization” of the entire state, including the civilian part of the population. Taking the large eastern monarchies as a model, the emperors created such a socio-economic system in which every citizen was considered to be in the service of only the state. No one had the right to leave the social category or craft organization in which he was located. No one could avoid the activity to which he was intended from the day he was born. Earlier, free colleges, uniting people by profession, have now turned into forced corporations. Most artisans received cash benefits from the state, and more often in-kind benefits, but for this they had to come to terms with the fact that their freedom was now sharply limited.
In this environment, capital construction is growing and expanding. By the time of Diocletian’s reign, the amphitheater in Verona, built in 290, is a building reminiscent of the type and size of the Colosseum in Rome. In 305, huge concrete baths of Diocletian were built. They accommodated 3,200 people at the same time and were the largest structure of this type created in the entire history of Roman construction.
Under Constantine, who in the field of public administration continued the traditions of Diocletian, on May 11, 330, the solemn consecration of the new capital of the Roman Empire, which was called Constantinople, took place. She quickly began to be built up, decorated with magnificent buildings and works of art, transported from Rome and Greece.
To the 4th century The Roman Empire is entering the final and final stage of its development. Gradually, a system of so-called naturally closed serfdom is developing. Trade is declining in the country, almost all types of government payments are being naturalized. The appearance of cities is changing. They now take the form of fortresses bounded by powerful walls and towers. The estates are turning into independent political and economic units, and their owner is becoming a sovereign, with an army of slaves and columns. The empire of Rome was disintegrating before our eyes. At the end of the 4th century a new socio-political crisis arises. In parallel, the pressure of barbarians on the borders of the state is increasing. Huge masses of Huns, Alans and Goths moved from the Caspian steppes to the West. August 24, 410 the eternal city fell.
Thus, as a result of the aggressive policy of Ancient Rome, enriching it through wars, the construction of large engineering structures, luxurious mansions, palaces, temples, residential and public buildings develops. In turn, this required a new strong, durable and relatively cheap material, which was concrete. However, for the implementation of large concrete construction projects, gold alone and slaves were not enough. A well-organized organization of labor, engineering knowledge and construction equipment were required.
The ancient sights of Rome can be estimated today very ambiguously. An impressive arena, in which no form of torture was considered too cruel. Places of worship where gods were often worshiped with ritual sacrifices that shock us today. Amusement palaces in which not only sexual corruption was accepted, but even encouraged. The State of Ancient Rome has attracted the interest of many scholars and history buffs.
Who were the people who created such grandiose structures in Rome? What made them build ever greater monuments and at what cost? What were the laws? The answers to these questions are very interesting, although to this day far from everything is known to us. The ancient sights of Rome are truly impressive. Let us introduce you some of them.
Coliseum
Crowds of people were attracted to the bloody spectacle. At times, up to 50 thousand people were spectators in the Roman Coliseum. All of them longed to see scenes of indescribable horror. Know, priests, senators, emperors, slaves, ordinary people had fun seeing the bloody scenes.
The gladiators fought each other, wearing heavy armor. Often they beat an opponent to death. In the arena wild hungry animals were pitted against each other, they were released to battle with man. The goal pursued by the participants in these confrontations is to tear each other to shreds. Some features of Ancient Rome today are not clear to us.
Arena water filling for performances
On the stage, various types of special effects were used. These included water-filled arenas to simulate naval battles. How did the ancient Romans manage to fill the Colosseum with water?
Everything is actually quite simple: a reservoir system was filled from the aqueducts. They were located directly above the arena, on a slope. These ingenious ancient Romans pumped down water from aqueducts, and then through tanks to the center of the Coliseum. A more complex question is how did they manage to then pump out the water?
It is believed that the ancient Romans built a sewer system. However, the researchers have yet to answer this question, since excavations have been carried out quite a bit in the Coliseum until today. The ancient sights of Rome are still not well understood.
Bloody contest
Basic Roman myths were part of the play. And the worse they were, the better. Christians and criminals often took on the most dangerous roles.
In the Roman Coliseum, bloody contests have prevailed since its discovery, which occurred in 72 A.D. The opening ceremony was hosted by Emperor Titus. It lasted 100 days. An unprecedented massacre occurred on the opening day: about 5 thousand animals died.
Colosseum - a gift of Vespasian
The Colosseum is a gift to the Romans from the predecessor and father of Titus. Vespasian, the founder of the Flavian dynasty, began to rule in 69 A.D. This time was a critical moment in the history of Rome. Hundreds of years have passed since the empire was founded by Augustus, and now its future has been very dim.
Chaos reigned when the Four Emperors began to change in one year. After that, the governor of Syria Vespasian seized power.
Being a clever diplomat and hero, he easily gained the support of the Senate and was declared emperor. After that, suppressing the uprising on the Rhine and the Jewish riot in Jerusalem, he focused on domestic problems.
Vespasian over a ten-year reign saved the treasury from the deficit left by his predecessor Nero. He also began to build many. The Colosseum became the grandest enterprise. He was conceived as a symbol of the success and power of Vespasian.
Colosseum building
It took more than 10 years to complete the construction. The Colosseum was originally called the Flavius \u200b\u200bAmphitheater. Many laborers and slaves were used to build it. Some builders were prisoners captured by Vespasian, winning the Jerusalem campaign.
The name of the architect who created the Colosseum is still unknown. One of the most amazing features of this attraction is a very complex system created to control the crowd. The amphitheater originally had 80 entrances. All of them led to certain sectors. Places were divided into tiers.
The fate of the Coliseum
The last games, which are known from written sources, were held in the 6th century AD. They completed these fierce contests, which once entertained the bloodthirsty Romans. The Colosseum after that for a long time was not used. It was partially destroyed, like many other ancient sights of Rome. A terrible earthquake occurred in the 9th century, as a result, most of it was destroyed.
Later, the Colosseum began to be used as a quarry. The rich marble lining, which began to be used in the construction of churches and palaces, was torn off. Part of the four levels that originally existed was still intact. To this day, the Colosseum is evidence of both the cruelty of the ancient Romans and the skill of the people who built the sights of ancient Rome. It attracts many tourists to Italy.
Pantheon
The temples of ancient Rome are impressive. The most famous of them is the Pantheon. In the 30s of the twentieth century, Benito Mussolini, an Italian dictator, conceived an original propaganda campaign. In particular, he drew parallels between the glory of the new regime and the greatness possessed by the empire of Ancient Rome. This has led to many archaeological research and excavations throughout the state. Due to the spill of the Tiber, deposits of land appeared on many monuments, which completely covered them. due to its proximity to the river, it was badly damaged. This structure was built from about 27 to 23 years BC.
Architectural plan discovered by workers
Workers, delving 6-7 meters into the ground, found a pavement that was made of massive blocks. However, the Second World War soon began, and for some time this discovery was forgotten. Only 20 years later, in 1964, Roman specialists again began to study this place. A full-sized architectural plan was carved on the pavement. Obviously, the yard served as a workshop for the construction site. The whole question is for what.
None of the existing monuments matched the design. One of the experts in 1992 solved the riddle. It seems that these plans were created for the Pantheon. Many parts of the structure coincided exactly, but not all.
First Pantheon
The Pantheon is a famous temple that was built in honor of the emperor, as well as for the worship of the gods of Rome. What we see now is not the first Pantheon. The temple was originally conceived by Mark Agrippa, a powerful Roman general. Construction began in 27 BC, and was completed two years later. However, in 64 A.D. a big fire destroyed the Pantheon.
Pantheon rebuilding
After this, in 118 AD, perestroika began, led by He, an amateur architect who participated in many construction projects in Rome.
The Pantheon was built after 10 years of work. Adrian dedicated the construction to its first builder. That is why the name of Mark Agrippa is visible on the facade.
In the Pantheon, a huge rotunda made of brick and stone is noteworthy, as well as a vault that forms a dome. The Pantheon is a square structure, 43 meters high and wide. Its walls are 7.5 meters thick, and each of the bronze doors weighs 20 tons.
Where now there are paintings on biblical motifs, previously stood marble statues of the gods of Rome.
The Baths of Caracalla
Attractions of ancient Rome also include the baths of Caracalla. These antique baths are similar to modern wellness centers. They are the largest and most richly decorated of all the public baths erected in ancient Rome. Their construction began Septimius Severus in 206 A.D. And the construction was completed in 216. The son of Septimius opened.
Decoration term, their use
These buildings of Ancient Rome were decorated really richly: walls faced with marble, mosaic floors, stucco ceilings.
The terms were occupied by a large and beautifully decorated area, used as a gymnasium. Here the men went in for sports: threw a spear, a disk, boxed. Entrance to the baths, even for slaves, was free. Initially, women and men washed themselves together, but at the beginning of the second century Adrian forbade this.
Invasion is ready, term destruction
These buildings of Ancient Rome continued to be used until 535 CE. At this time, the Goths invaded, which broke the aqueduct. The same fate befell the terms of Caracalla, like many other monuments of ancient Rome. They were partially destroyed. The large amounts required for their repair disappeared when the empire collapsed, the surrounding world, familiar to the inhabitants, disappeared. Ancient Rome was a thing of the past.
In the Middle Ages, marble and bronze were torn off the walls, and beautiful sculptures adorning the baths were in the collections of the Roman Popes and the aristocracy.
Forum
From the magnificent Roman Forum, not much has been preserved. He was the center of the life of Rome. The Forum appeared in the IV century BC In its place today only fragments of some monuments, a lot of overturned stones and a couple of vaults are preserved. We note right away that the imperial forums are adjacent to the Roman Forum, which are not part of the Roman Forum, although they are similar in purpose and name.
Reconstruction of the forum in August
The construction of the forum was random. A systematic plan did not exist. Therefore, the forum lacked harmony. During the time of Augustus, it was completely renovated. This emperor removed most of the structures, while paving and expanding the territory. Now, what the forum looked like during the republic’s period is a mystery. Many of the buildings were wooden, so they were demolished or destroyed. August used only stone and cement for construction.
Vestals
Temples of Ancient Rome on the forum include a temple dedicated to It was for the Roman people one of the most important and ancient goddesses. They connected her with her heart, as well as with fire. It was believed that this fire represented the spiritual strength of the whole country. Priestesses served her, watching that the fire did not go out. They always had to remain virgins, otherwise they would be executed. Vestals lived near the temple. They were chosen from aristocratic families aged 6 to 10 years. For 30 years they had to serve at the temple. After serving, these women were thus at least 36 years old. To many, they seemed too old to marry them. Most of the vestals remained priestesses for the rest of their lives.
Much surpassed in greatness, functionalism and scale created by the Greeks samples. An important role was played here in part by the invention of good cement. But no less important was the vanity of emperors, who, over the centuries, tried to surpass their predecessors by erecting ever-more majestic, grandiose and richly decorated monuments.
It is believed that the primitive buildings of Rome came from the Etruscan people, perhaps even were built by them. This was, logically, a continuation of the line of Greek architecture. The buildings of the Roman Empire retained the basis of Etruscan architecture - a circular arch. The circular arch is a rounded stone coating that connects the foundations to each other. This helped to arrange the stones in a circle radius for uniform pressure on them. Applying new techniques for constructing structures, the Romans could bring creativity into new buildings. Theoretical new knowledge helped to build large temples, the ability to erect multi-storey buildings and structures. In terms of introducing cross vaults and box-shaped occurring Romans excelled the Greeks and made more refined buildings.
In order for the arches to stand reliably, columns that were previously popular were no longer used. Roman architects began to build huge walls and pilasters, and the columns became just a decorative ornament. This was used almost everywhere, but there were also buildings in which the use of columns was more appropriate. At the same time, the styles of the columns remained practically unchanged, the Romans settled on the standard Greek version.
In general, Roman architecture was directly dependent on the Greek directions of architecture. However, the Romans tried more to emphasize their strength and independence in order to intimidate and suppress foreign nations. They spared no means to decorate their buildings, each building was lavishly and richly finished. At the same time, from the viewpoint of the architect, they tried to make each building exemplary. Mostly buildings were built for practical needs, but churches also occupied an important place among the structures.
History of Ancient Rome Architecture
As an independent branch of world art, the architecture of Ancient Rome took a very long time to form, around the 4th-1st centuries. BC e. Despite the fact that many structures of those times were already scattered, they regularly continue to fascinate with their remains and individual elements. The Roman Empire was one of the great, if not the greatest, that laid the foundation for a new era. Public places of that time could accommodate tens of thousands of people (basilicas, amphitheaters, trade markets), and there was always something to strive for. Religion, too, did not recede into the background, the list of building structures of Rome included temples, altars, tombs.
Comparing with the whole world, even historians came to the conclusion that it was difficult or simply impossible to find equal rivals to the architecture of Rome and Roman engineering. Aqueducts, bridges, roads, fortresses, canals as architectural objects are only a small part of the list of what they used on all fronts. They changed the principles of ancient Greek architecture, primarily the order system: they connected the order with an arched structure.
Great importance in the formation of Roman culture was given to the style of the Hellenes, who were proponents of architecture with a huge scope and development of urban centers. But humanism and the ability to inherit a harmonious Greek style in Rome were omitted, giving preference to the exaltation of powerful emperors. They sharply emphasized the power of the army. Hence the whole pathos, which was the basis of many scenery of buildings and structures.
The variety of structures and the general scope of buildings in Rome is much higher than in Greece. The construction of huge buildings was made possible thanks to a change in the technical foundations in construction. So there are new brick and concrete structures. They allowed to cover large spans, accelerating the process of construction work. It was also important that with the use of such construction methods they increasingly abandoned professional masters, and trusted slaves and workers without qualifications. This significantly reduced construction costs.
Stages of development of Roman architecture
I period
The stages of development of Roman architecture can be divided into 4 periods. The first and shortest begins with the founding of ancient Rome and ends in the II century. BC e. This period is not rich in architectural monuments, and those that appeared were the heritage of the Etruscans. Almost everything that was built during this period was publicly available. It brought collective benefits to the settlements. This category included channels for cleansing the city of sewage, which with the help of them fell into the Tiber. Mamertinsky prison and the first basilicas can also be attributed to buildings that have benefited.
ІІ period
The second stage is called “Greek”. From the middle of the II century begins the serious influence of Greek architecture on Roman. A strong influence manifested itself before the completion of republican rule (31 BC). It is believed that at that time the first marble temples began to appear, replacing the usual rocks and travertines. In their design, they were very similar to the Greek, but the architects tried to make noticeable differences.
Roman temples over the years looked oblong with 4 corners. The foundation was usually high, with an attached staircase on the front side. Climbing the stairs, you find yourself next to the columns. Going down a little in depth, there is a door that leads to the main hall. The main lighting comes through this door, so it is often open.
Together with such temples of the ancient Greek type, the Romans erected, in honor of the Gods, round-shaped temples. These were mainly their ideas using Greek elements. One of these can be considered the Temple of Portune, surrounded by 20 columns, this historic site has survived to this day. A cone-shaped marble roof is a good example of a Roman individual style.
The community of buildings included not only buildings related to religion, but many others:
- Tabularium - a huge building designed to preserve archives;
- The Skavra Wooden Theater is one of the most interesting buildings of this period. Includes over three hundred marble columns and bronze statues, could accommodate 80,000 visitors;
- The first stone theater - built on the honor of the goddess Venus.
The whole story of them disappeared with them. However, it is worth noting that using modern technology of three-dimensional modeling, it was proved that these structures were built very competently. For example, the “Stone Theater” was located in such a way that the scene looked to the northeast. Since during Augustus traditionally performances and celebrations were held in the morning, all the sun's rays fell on the stage, and not on the theater visitors.
ІІІ period
By significance, the most effective period in the history of Roman architecture. The beginning is considered from the time of Augustus's accession to the republican throne and ends in 138 A.D. e.
The technology of the Romans begins the active use of concrete. A new stage begins in the construction of basilicas, circuses, libraries. Courts passed there, revealing the best chariot riders. A new type of monumental art, the Arc de Triomphe, is gaining popularity. At the same time, technology was constantly improved with the help of new constructions dedicated to the new victories of the future empire.
Roman art was not as elegant as Greek buildings, but the technical mastery of erection remained at the highest level for centuries. Famous all over the world are the Colosseum (the largest amphitheater of antiquity) and the Pantheon temple (erection in the name of the Gods).
The introduction of Greek architecture features gained mass popularity and continued to march into the western and northern regions of Europe. Most Greek architects became famous with the help of the Romans, who ordered Greek copies, preserved better than the originals. The Romans, unlike the Greeks, adhered to their concept of sculptural traditions. They made busts of their ancestors to show the prototypes of a kind. The Greeks used sculptures such as works of art in the house. This simplicity and bright personality of Roman portraiture art shows it from a new perspective for us.
With the passage of this period, all structures of architecture go through the stages of development, improvement and increase the level of grandeur. The elements of luxury are widely used and for the first time the features of oriental art begin to slip.
IV period
After the departure from the power of Hadrian, Roman architectural art quickly begins its decline. All those jewelry that was previously used, begin to seem redundant and inappropriate, and their use is less and less correct. This period continues until the full formation of Christianity and the departure of paganism far into the background. The period of decline is characterized by the fact that every ruler wants to go down in history with the help of magnificent structures.
This period also continues to be distinguished by oriental elements, which are more clearly traced in architectural art. They begin to prevail over the classics of the genre. Particularly eloquent evidence of this is the construction under the last rulers of the empire in such remote areas of possessions as Syria and Arabia. This was noticeable by a change in the swelling of the roof surface, an abundance of unnecessary accessories. Mysterious, fantastic forms were often erected - which were considered symbols of the eastern direction of architecture.
Greatness of Rome in the Temples
One of the first structures erected by Augustus, dedicated to the deified idol Julius Caesar. Built in 29 BC The temple was created in the modest style of an ionic order. Separately, the site of the cremation of Caesar was concentrated. In the decorated hall there are reserved places for speakers, which replaced the tribunal that existed here, concentrated for many years in the western part.
Altar of Peace
The monumental building of ancient Rome, which entered the history of the victory of Augustus over the Spaniards and Gauls. It was built in 13 BC. e. In appearance, it looked like a fence I had right angles 6 meters high, in the center of which was a step with an altar. Along the perimeter of the fence there were 2 through passages, with the help of which it was possible to approach the altar. On opposite walls were depicted the processions of Augustus for the offering of the sacrifice to the altar.
The memo had in its personification particles of all cultures of the predecessors of Roman architecture. By the type of construction, one can judge the Italian style, and by the location of the ornament on the bottoms and tops of the Etruscan principles. Refined craftsmanship of the relief of the altar, speaks of a strong Greek influence.
Temple of Mars Ultor
One of the grandest temples in Rome. The width of the facade alone is about 35 m. The columns are erected up to 18 m. The interior was mainly made of marble with wooden ceilings. Having a solemn appearance inside, the temple caused a feeling of delight among the people present in it. The date of the creation of this historical monument is considered 2 BC. e. Greek elements are traced in almost all levels of architecture.
Pantheon
A special place in Rome is the Pantheon Temple. The second name is "Temple of All Gods." The mass of temples of ancient times was built by order of the emperors, including the Pantheon was no exception. The Pantheon was dedicated primarily to the two gods Venus and Mars, they were considered the guardians of the Julian clan. The building consisted of three parts, which were intertwined with each other. It was named after the architect who performed the work, but it is believed that the Pantheon was his pseudonym. The Pantheon was built in 118-128., After years, several times succumbed to restoration. To date, only a small part has remained of it, which does not allow you to enjoy all the majesty of the temple of that period.
Sculpture of ancient rome
The monumental art of the ancient Romans significantly lost to the Greeks. The Romans failed to create the greatest sculptural monuments and compete with the Greeks at these borders. But enriching the plastic with its own elements was nevertheless possible.
The best results were achieved in portraiture. The Roman people transferred their observation of every trait of man and his unique personality. Ideal portraits were created, as well as portraits on which one could see the human negative and the realism of the art form. With the help of sculptures, they first launched propaganda of the cultivation of society. They built monuments to famous personalities, made structures of triumph.